Sunday, 20 August 2023

About what he taught us that day about communicating/networking devices and the frequencies , governenment rules etc


 About what he taught us that day about communicating/networking devices and the frequencies , government rules etc


           In today's fast-paced digital era, communication devices play a pivotal role in keeping us connected across vast distances. Whether it's our smartphones, laptops, or IoT gadgets, these devices rely on complex technologies to facilitate seamless communication. In a recent enlightening session, we delved into the fascinating world of communicating and networking devices, exploring topics such as frequencies, government regulations, and the intricate web that connects our digital lives.

Understanding Frequencies:
At the heart of communication devices lies the concept of frequencies. These are like the radio stations of the digital world, allowing devices to exchange information wirelessly. From the radio waves that transmit FM signals to the microwave frequencies used in Wi-Fi and Bluetooth, each frequency range has its purpose. The lower frequencies tend to travel longer distances but with lower data rates, while higher frequencies enable faster data transfer but over shorter distances.

Networking Devices and Protocols:
Intricately woven into the fabric of modern communication are networking devices and protocols. Routers, switches, and access points form the backbone of our connected world, allowing devices to communicate within and beyond local networks. TCP/IP, Ethernet, and Wi-Fi are some of the fundamental protocols that govern how data packets are sent and received across these networks.

Government Regulations and Spectrum Allocation:
The airwaves through which our devices communicate are a finite resource, and their use is regulated by governments worldwide. Spectrum allocation ensures that different frequency bands are assigned to various purposes, such as cellular communication, broadcasting, satellite communication, and more. Government bodies like the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in the United States play a critical role in managing and enforcing these regulations to prevent interference and ensure efficient use of the available spectrum.

5G and Beyond:
No discussion on communication devices would be complete without mentioning the advent of 5G technology. The fifth generation of wireless technology promises faster speeds, lower latency, and the ability to connect an unprecedented number of devices simultaneously. However, the implementation of 5G comes with its own set of challenges, including the need for more cell towers and addressing concerns about potential health effects due to increased exposure to higher frequencies.

The Future of Connected Devices:
As we continue to evolve in the realm of communication devices, the future holds exciting prospects. The Internet of Things (IoT) is set to connect everything from our cars to our refrigerators, creating a truly interconnected ecosystem. Additionally, advancements in artificial intelligence and machine learning will enable devices to intelligently adapt to changing network conditions and user preferences, creating a more seamless and personalized experience.

In conclusion, the session provided a captivating insight into the intricate world of communication devices. From frequencies that bridge the gap between devices to government regulations that maintain order in the digital airwaves, our understanding of these concepts is crucial in navigating the ever-expanding landscape of technology.

Thursday, 17 August 2023

About data recovery process andEaster eggs in softwares

DATA RECOVERY PROCESS:-


Data recovery is the process of restoring data that has been lost, accidentally deleted, corrupted or made inaccessible.

In enterprise IT, data recovery typically refers to the restoration of data to a desktop, laptop, server or external storage system from a backup.

Causes of data loss
Most data loss is caused by human error, rather than malicious attacks, according to U.K. statistics released in 2016. In fact, human error accounted for almost two-thirds of the incidents reported to the U.K. Information Commissioner's Office. The most common type of breach occurred when someone sent data to the wrong person.

Other common causes of data loss include power outages, natural disasters, equipment failures or malfunctions, accidental deletion of data, unintentionally formatting a hard drive, damaged hard drive read/write heads, software crashes, logical errors, firmware corruption, continued use of a computer after signs of failure, physical damage to hard drives, laptop theft, and spilling coffee or water on a computer.

How data recovery works
The data recovery process varies, depending on the circumstances of the data loss, the data recovery software used to create the backup and the backup target media. For example, many desktop and laptop backup software platforms allow users to restore lost files themselves, while restoration of a corrupted database from a tape backup is a more complicated process that requires IT intervention. Data recovery services can also be used to retrieve files that were not backed up and accidentally deleted from a computer's file system, but still remain on the hard disk in fragments.


Data recovery is possible because a file and the information about that file are stored in different places. For example, the Windows operating system uses a file allocation table to track which files are on the hard drive and where they are stored. The allocation table is like a book's table of contents, while the actual files on the hard drive are like the pages in the book.

When data needs to be recovered, it's usually only the file allocation table that's not working properly. The actual file to be recovered may still be on the hard drive in flawless condition. If the file still exists -- and it is not damaged or encrypted -- it can be recovered. If the file is damaged, missing or encrypted, there are other ways of recovering it. If the file is physically damaged, it can still be reconstructed. Many applications, such as Microsoft Office, put uniform headers at the beginning of files to designate that they belong to that application. Some utilities can be used to reconstruct the file headers manually, so at least some of the file can be recovered.

Most data recovery processes combine technologies, so organizations aren't solely recovering data by tape. Recovering core applications and data from tape takes time, and you may need to access your data immediately after a disaster. There are also risks involved with transporting tapes.

In addition, not all production data at a remote location may be needed to resume operations. Therefore, it's wise to identify what can be left behind and what data must be recovered.

Data recovery techniques
Instant recovery, also known as recovery in place, tries to eliminate the recovery window by redirecting user workloads to the backup server. A snapshot is created so the backup remains in a pristine state and all user write operations are redirected to that snapshot; users then work off the backup virtual machine (VM) and the recovery process begins in the background. Users have no idea the recovery is taking place, and once the recovery is complete, the user workload is redirected back to the original VM.

One way to avoid the time-consuming and costly process of data recovery is to prevent the data loss from ever taking place. Data loss prevention (DLP) products help companies identify and stop data leaks, and come in two versions: stand-alone and integrated.

Stand-alone DLP products can reside on specialized appliances or be sold as software.
Integrated DLP products are usually found on perimeter security gateways and are useful for detecting sensitive data at rest and in motion.
Unlike stand-alone data loss prevention products, integrated DLP products usually do not share the same management consoles, policy management engines and data storage.

Integrating data recovery into a DR plan
An organization's disaster recovery plan should identify the people in the organization responsible for recovering data, provide a strategy for how data will be recovered, and document acceptable recovery point and recovery time objectives. It should also include the steps to take in recovering data.

For example, if a building is inoperable, affected business units must be advised to prepare to relocate to an alternate location. If hardware systems have been damaged or destroyed, processes must be activated to recover damaged hardware. Processes to recover damaged software should also be part of the DR plan.

Some resources worth reviewing are the National Institute for Standards and Technology SP 800-34 standard, as well as ISO 24762 and 27031 standards.

A business impact analysis can help an organization understand its data requirements and identify the minimum amount of time needed to recover data to its previous state. One challenge to data loss and data recovery is getting a handle on the unstructured data stored on various devices.

But there are steps that can mitigate the damage. Start by classifying data based on its sensitivity and determine which classifications must be secured. Then, determine how much data would have to be compromised to affect the organization. Undertake a risk assessment to determine what controls are needed to protect sensitive data. Finally, put systems in place to store and protect that content.

This was last updated in January 2017
Continue Reading About data recovery
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Ten tips to put data first in a BC/DR plan
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How GDPR, ransomware are changing backup software
Have a data recovery process in place before disaster hits

Friday, 11 August 2023


During the "POST" (Power-On Self-Test) process, the computer's basic hardware components are checked to ensure that they are functioning properly before the operating system is loaded. This process takes place immediately after you turn on the computer. However, it's important to note that the "POST" itself doesn't directly check the hard drive capacity.

The "POST" primarily focuses on checking essential hardware components such as the CPU (Central Processing Unit), RAM (Random Access Memory), motherboard, graphics card, keyboard, and other critical components. It ensures that these components are operational and that the computer can proceed to the next stage of the boot process, which involves loading the operating system.

The hard drive capacity check typically occurs later in the boot process when the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) or UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface) is accessed. The BIOS/UEFI is responsible for initializing and configuring hardware components, and it often includes a component that identifies the attached storage devices, including hard drives, solid-state drives, and other storage media.

During the BIOS/UEFI initialization, the system may display a summary screen or provide access to a setup utility where you can view information about the connected storage devices, including their capacity, model, and other relevant details. This information is displayed as part of the system information and configuration options provided by the BIOS/UEFI.


The exact location and timing of the hard drive capacity check within the boot process can vary based on the specific motherboard, BIOS/UEFI version, and system configuration. Typically, it occurs after the POST but before the operating system is loaded.

Thursday, 10 August 2023

BOOTING PROCESS OF THE COMPUTER..


 


Steps in the Booting Process:-

Booting is a process of switching on the computer and starting the operating system. Six steps of the booting process are BIOS and Setup Program, The Power On-Self-Test (POST), The Operating system Loads, System Configuration, System Utility Loads and Users Authentication.

STEPS TO PROCESS:-

1: BIOS and Setup Program

 2: The Power-On-Self-Test (POST)

 3:The Operating System (OS) Loads

4: System Configuration 

5: System Utility Loads

6: Users Authentication Step

 1: BIOS and Setup Program:-

ROM (read-only memory): it is a permanent and unchanging memory also  BIOS (basic input/output system ): the part of the system software that includes the instructions that the computer uses to accept input and output

  Load: to transfer from a storage device to memory. The ROM loads BIOS into the computer’s memory

  Setup program: a special program containing settings to control hardware. Furthermore, the program can only be accessed while the BIOS information is visible 

Step 2:The Power-On-Self-Test (POST)

 POST (Power-On Self-Test): a series of tests conducted on the computer’s main memory, input/output devices, disk drives, and the hard disk. 

 BIOS conducts Power-On-Self-Test to check the input/ output system for operability.

 The computer will produce a beeping sound if any problem occurs. An error message will also appear on the monitor 

Step 3: The Operating System (OS) Loads

 BIOS searches for the operating system. 

 Setting in CMOS: complementary metal oxide semiconductor determines where to look for the operating system.

  In this step, the operating system’s kernel is also loaded into the computer’s memory. 

 The operating system takes control of the computer and begins loading system configuration information.

 Step 4: System Configuration

 Registry: a database to store information about peripherals and software

  Peripheral: a device connected to a computer 

 Drive: a utility program that makes peripheral devices function properly

  The operating system’s registry configures the system.

  In this step, drivers are also loaded into memory. 

Step 5: System Utility Loads

  System utilities are loaded into memory. 

 Volume control

  Antivirus software

  PC card unplugging utility 

Step 6: Users Authentication

  Authentication or user login occurs 

 Username

  Password 

 After all this process, the user interface starts, enabling user interaction with the computer and its programs also.



Saturday, 5 August 2023

Lauguage used for Windows 11

 WINDOWS 11







Written in -
C, C++, C#, Rust, assembly language
OS family-

 Microsoft windows

Source model-

Closed-source Source-available (through Shared Source Initiative) Some components open source

General availability October 5, 2021

MIC BOOK



Objective-C is the language most commonly used in Mac OS Programming.

Swift is a robust and intuitive programming language created by Apple for building apps for iOS, Mac, Apple TV, and Apple Watch. It's designed to give developers more freedom than ever. Swift is easy to use and open source, so anyone with an idea can create something incredible.

John von Neumann




John von Neumann

Neumann Janos Lajos December 28, 1903 – February 8, 1957) was a Hungarian-American . He was regarded as having perhaps the widest coverage of any mathematician of his time and was said to have been "the last representative of the great mathematicians who were equally at home in both pure and applied mathematics". He integrated pure and

Life and education

Family background:-

Von Neumann was born in Budapest, Kingdom of Hungary (which was then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire),[25][26][27] on December 28, 1903, to a wealthy, acculturated, and non-observant Jewish family. His Hungarian birth name was Neumann Janos Lajos. In Hungarian, the family name comes first, and his given names are equivalent to John Louis in English.


He was the eldest of three brothers; his two younger siblings were Mihály (English: Michael von Neumann; 1907–1989) and Miklós (Nicholas von Neumann, 1911–2011). His father, Neumann Miksa (Max von Neumann, 1873–1928) was a banker, who held a doctorate in law. He had moved to Budapest from Pécs at the end of the 1880s. Mikasa's father and grandfather were both born in Ond (now part of the town of Szerencs), , northern Hungary. John's mother was Kann Margit (English: Margaret Kann); her parents were Jakab Kann and Katalin Meisels of the Meisels family.Three generations of the Kann family lived in spacious apartments above the Kann-Heller offices in Budapest; von Neumann's family occupied an 18-room apartment on the top floor.[33]



On February 20, 1913, Emperor Franz Joseph elevated John's father to the Hungarian nobility for his service to the Austro-Hungarian Empire.[12] The Neumann family thus acquired the hereditary appellation Marquitta, meaning "of Magritte" (today Marghita , Romania). The family had no connection with the town; the appellation was chosen in reference to Margaret, as was their chosen coat of arms depicting three marguerites. Neumann Janos became Magrittian Neumann Junos (John Neumann de Magritte), which he later changed to the German Johann von Neumann.


University studies:-

According to his friend Theodore von Kármán, von Neumann's father wanted John to follow him into industry and thereby invest his time in a more financially useful endeavor than mathematics. In fact, his father asked von Kármán to persuade his son not to take mathematics as his major.[50] Von Neumann and his father decided that the best career path was to become a chemical engineer. This was not something that von Neumann had much knowledge of, so it was arranged for him to take a two-year, non-degree course in chemistry at the University of Berlin, after which he sat for the entrance exam to the prestigious ETH Zurich,[51] which he passed in September 1923.At the same time, von Neumann also entered Pázmány Péter University in Budapest,[53] as a Ph.D. candidate in mathematics. For his thesis, he chose to produce an axiomatization of Cantor's set theory.[54][55] He graduated as a chemical engineer from ETH Zurich in 1926 (although Wigner says that von Neumann was never very attached to the subject of chemistry), and passed his final examinations with summa cum laude for his Ph.D. in mathematics (with minors in experimental physics and chemistry) simultaneously with his chemical engineering degree, of which Wigner wrote, "Evidently a Ph.D. thesis and examination did not constitute an appreciable effort."[] He then went to the University of Göttingen on a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation to study mathematics under David Hilbert.[58] Hermann Weyl, in his obituary of Emmy Noether, remembers how in the winter of 1926-1927 von Neumann, Noether and himself would take walks after his classes through "the cold, wet, rain-wet streets of Göttingen" where they discussed hypercomplex number systems and their representations.


Career and private  life:-


 

Von Neumann held a lifelong passion for ancient history and was renowned for his historical knowledge. A professor of Byzantine history at Princeton once said that von Neumann had greater expertise in Byzantine history than he did.[79] He knew by heart much of the material in Gibbon's Decline and Fall and after dinner liked to engage in various historical discussions. Ulm noted that one time while driving south to a meeting of the American Mathematical Society, von Neumann would describe even the minutest details of the battles of the Civil War that occurred in the places they drove by. This kind of travel where he could be in a car and talk for hours on topics ranging from mathematics to literature without interruption was something he enjoyed very much.

Von Neumann liked to eat and drink. His wife, Klara, said that he could count everything except calories. He enjoyed Yiddish and "off-color" humor (especially limericks). He was a non-smoker. In Princeton, he received complaints for regularly playing extremely loud German march music on his phonograph, which distracted those in neighboring offices, including Albert Einstein, from their work. Von Neumann did some of his best work in noisy, chaotic environments, and once admonished his wife for preparing a quiet study for him to work in. He never used it, preferring the couple's living room with his wife's phonograph playing loudly. Despite being a notoriously bad driver, he enjoyed driving—frequently while reading a book—occasioning numerous arrests as well as accidents. When Cuthbert Hurd hired him as a consultant to IBM, Hurd often quietly paid the fines for his traffic tickets

Von Neumann's closest friend in the United States was mathematician Stanislaw Ulam. A later friend of Ulam's, Gian-Carlo Rota, wrote, "They would spend hours on end gossiping and giggling, swapping Jewish jokes, and drifting in and out of mathematical talk." When von Neumann was dying in the hospital, every time Ulam visited, he came prepared with a new collection of jokes to cheer him up. Von Neumann believed that much of his mathematical thought occurred intuitively; he would often go to sleep with a problem unsolved and know the answer upon waking up. Ulan noted that von Neumann's way of thinking might not be visual, but more aural.

In February 1951 for the New York Times he had his brain waves scanned while at rest and while thinking (along with Albert Einstein and Norbert Wiener). "They generally showed differences from the average" was the conclusion.

Computer science:-


Von Neumann was a founding figure in computing. Von Neumann was the inventor, in 1945, of the merge sort algorithm, in which the first and second halves of an array are each sorted recursively and then merged. Von Neumann wrote the 23-page-long sorting program for the EDVAC in ink. On the first page, traces of the phrase "TOP SECRET", which was written in pencil and later erased, can still be seen. He also worked on the philosophy of artificial intelligence with Alan Turing when the latter visited Princeton in the 1930s.
Von Neumann's hydrogen bomb work was played out in the realm of computing, where he and Stanisław Ulam developed simulations on von Neumann's digital computers for the hydrodynamic computations. During this time he contributed to the development of the Monte Carlo method, which allowed solutions to complicated problems to be approximated using random numbers
Flow chart from von Neumann's "Planning and coding of problems for an electronic computing instrument", published in 1Von Neumann's algorithm for simulating a fair coin with Biases coin is used in the "software whitening" stage of some hardware random number generators.[298] Because using lists of "truly" random numbers was extremely slow, von Neumann developed a form of making pseudorandom numbers, using the middle-square method. Though this method has been criticized as crude, von Neumann was aware of this: he justified it as being faster than any other method at his disposal, writing that "Anyone who considers arithmetical methods of producing random digits is, of course, in a state of sin." Von Neumann also noted that when this method went awry it did so obviously, unlike other methods which could be subtly incorreWhile consulting for the Moore School of Electrical Engineering at the University of Pennsylvania on the EDVAC project, von Neumann wrote an incomplete First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC. The paper, whose premature distribution nullified the patent claims of EDVAC designers J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly, described a computer architecture in which the data and the program are both stored in the computer's memory in the same address space. This architecture is the basis of most modern computer designs, unlike the earliest computers that were "programmed" using a separate memory device such as a paper tape or plugboard. Although the single-memory, stored program architecture is commonly called von Neumann architecture as a result of von Neumann's paper, the architecture was based on the work of Eckert and Mauchly, inventors of the ENIAC computer at the University of Pennsylvania.[300]
Von Neumann consulted for the Army's Ballistic Research Laboratory, most notably on the ENIAC project,[301] as a member of its Scientific Advisory Committee.[302] The electronics of the new ENIAC ran at one-sixth the speed, but this in no way degraded the ENIAC's performance, since it was still entirely I/O bound. Complicated programs could be developed and debugged in days rather than the weeks required for plug boarding the old ENIAC. Some 

The next computer that von Neumann designed was the IAS machine at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. He arranged its financing, and the components were designed and built at the RCA Research Laboratory nearby. Von Neumann recommended that the , nicknamed the defense computer, include a magnetic drum. It was a faster version of the IAS machine and formed the basis for the commercially successful

Stochastic computing was first introduced in a pioneering paper by von Neumann in 1953.[306] However, the theory could not be implemented until advances in computing of the 1960s.[308] Around 1950 he was also among the first people to talk about the time complexity of computations, which eventually evolved into the field of computational complexity theory.[309]

Herman Goldstine once described how he felt that even in comparison to all his technical achievements in computer science, it was the fact that he was held in such high esteem, had such a reputation, that the digital computer was accepted so quickly and worked on by others.[310] As an example, he talked about Tom Watson, Jr.'s meetings with von Neumann at the Institute for Advanced Study, whom he had come to see after having heard of von Neumann's work and wanting to know what was happening for himself personally. IBM, which Watson Jr. later became CEO and president of, would play an enormous role in the forthcoming computer industry. The second example was that once von Neumann was elected Commissioner of the Atomic Energy Commission, he would exert great influence over the commission's laboratories to promote the use of computers and to spur competition between IBM and Sperry-Rand, which would result in the Stretch and LARC computers that lead to further developments in the field. Goldstine also notes how von Neumann's expository style when speaking about technical subjects, particularly to non-technical audiences, was very attractive.[311] This view was held not just by him but by many other mathematicians and scientists of the time too.[312]

In 1955 von Neumann suffered a fall. During the medical examination that followed his physician noticed a mass growing near his collarbone. A biopsy of this mass led to a diagnosis of metastatic cancer, originating either in von Neumann's skeleton, pancreas or prostate.[89][90] The original malignancy may have been caused by exposure to radiation during his time at Los Alamos National Laboratory.

Von Neumann was unable to accept the proximity of his own demise, and the shadow of impending death instilled great fear in him He invited a Catholic priest, Father Anselm Stradlater, O.S.B., to visit him for consultation. Von Neumann reportedly said, "So long as there is the possibility of eternal damnation for nonbelievers it is more logical to be a believer at the end," referring to Pascal's wager. He had earlier confided to his mother, "There probably has to be a God. Many things are easier to explain if there is than if there isn't." Father Stradlater administered the last rites to him. Some of von Neumann's friends, such as Abraham  Pais and Oskar Morgenstern, said they had always believed him to be "completely agnostic".] Of this deathbed conversion, Morgenstern told Heim's , "He was of course completely agnostic all his life, and then he suddenly turned Catholic—it doesn't agree with anything whatsoever in his attitude, outlook and thinking when he was healthy." Father Stradlater recalled that even after his conversion, von Neumann did not receive much peace or comfort from it, as he still remained terrified of death.

During the last few weeks of von Neumann's life many friends and relatives visited him at Walter Reed Army Medical Hospital in NW Washington, D.C. He entertained his brother Mike by reciting by heart and word-for-word the first few lines of each page of Goethe's Faust. His brother would read Faust to him and when he paused to turn the page, Von Neumann would recite from memory the first few lines of the following page. Likewise, his brother-in-law Stan Ulm read to von Neumann in Greek from a worn copy of Thucydides' History. Ulm remembers von Neumann correcting his occasional misreading's and mispronunciations from memory.

On his deathbed von Neumann's mental capabilities became a fraction of what they were before, causing him much anguish. Marina von Neumann later remembered that in the days before her father's death,


[he] clearly realized that the illness had gone to his brain and that he could no longer think, and he asked me to test him on really simple arithmetic problems, like seven plus four, and I did this for a few minutes, and then I couldn’t take it anymore; I left the room.

No space

John von Neumann

December 28, 1903 – February 8, 1957) was a Hungarian-American mathematician, physicist, computer scientist, engineer and polymath. He was regarded as having perhaps the widest coverage of any mathematician of his time and was said to have been "the last representative of the great mathematicians who were equally at home in both pure and applied mathematics". He integrated pure and applied sciences.
Von Neumann made major contributions to many fields, including mathematics (mathematical logic, measure theory, functional analysis, ergodic theory, group theory, lattice theory, representation theory, operator algebras, matrix theory, geometry, and numerical analysis), physics (quantum mechanics, hydrodynamics & ballistics, nuclear physics and quantum statistical mechanics), economics (game theory and general equilibrium theory), computing (Von Neumann architecture, linear programming, numerical meteorology, scientific computing, self-replicating machines, stochastic computing), and statistics. He was a pioneer of the application of operator theory to quantum mechanics in the development of functional analysis, and a key figure in the development of game theory and the concepts of cellular automata, the universal constructor and the digital computer.

Von Neumann published over 150 papers: about 60 in pure mathematics, 60 in applied mathematics, 20 in physics, and the remainder on special mathematical subjects or non-mathematical subjects.[16] His last work, an unfinished manuscript written while he was dying, was later published in book form as The Computer and the Brain.

His analysis of the structure of self-replication preceded the discovery of the structure of DNA. In a shortlist of facts about his life he submitted to the National Academy of Sciences, he wrote, "The part of my work I consider most essential is that on quantum mechanics, which developed in Göttingen in 1926, and subsequently in Berlin in 1927–1929. Also, my work on various forms of operator theory, Berlin 1930 and Princeton 1935–1939; on the ergodic theorem, Princeton, 1931–1932."

During World War II, von Neumann worked on the Manhattan Project with theoretical physicist Edward Teller, mathematician Stanislaw Ulam and others, problem-solving key steps in the nuclear physics involved in thermonuclear reactions and the hydrogen bomb. He developed the mathematical models behind the explosive lenses used in the implosion-type nuclear weapon and coined the term "kiloton" (of TNT) as a measure of the explosive force generated.[18] During this time and after the war, he consulted for a vast number of organizations including the Office of Scientific Research and Development, the Army's Ballistic Research Laboratory, the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project and the Oak Ridge National Laboratory.

At the peak of his influence in the 1950s, he was the chair for a number of critical Defense Department committees including the Strategic Missile Evaluation Committee and the ICBM Scientific Advisory Committee. He was also a member of the influential Atomic Energy Commission in charge of all atomic energy development in the country. He played a key role alongside Bernard Schriever and Trevor Gardner in contributing to the design and development of the United States' first ICBM programs. During this time, he was considered the nation's foremost expert on nuclear weaponry and the leading defense scientist at the Pentagon. As a Hungarian émigré, concerned that the Soviets would achieve nuclear superiority, he designed and promoted the policy of mutually assured destruction to limit the arms race.

In honor of his achievements and contributions to the modern world, he was named in 1999 the Financial Times Person of the Century, as a representative of the century's characteristic ideal that the power of the mind could shape the physical world, and of the "intellectual brilliance and human savagery" that defined the 20th century.

Life and education

Family background:-


Von Neumann was born in Budapest, Kingdom of Hungary (which was then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire),[25][26][27] on December 28, 1903, to a wealthy, acculturated, and non-observant Jewish family. His Hungarian birth name was Neumann Janos Lajos. In Hungarian, the family name comes first, and his given names are equivalent to John Louis in English.

He was the eldest of three brothers; his two younger siblings were Mihaly (English: Michael von Neumann; 1907–1989) and Miklos (Nicholas von Neumann, 1911–2011). His father, Neumann Miksa (Max von Neumann, 1873–1928) was a banker, who held a doctorate in law. He had moved to Budapest from Paces at the end of the 1880s. Mika's father and grandfather were both born in Ond (now part of the town of Szerencs), Zemplén County, northern Hungary. John's mother was Kann Margit (English: Margaret Kann); her parents were Jakab Kann and Katalin Meisels of the Meisels family. Three generations of the Kann family lived in spacious apartments above the Kann-Heller offices in Budapest; von Neumann's family occupied an 18-room apartment on the top floor.

On February 20, 1913, Emperor Franz Joseph elevated John's father to the Hungarian nobility for his service to the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Neumann family thus acquired the hereditary appellation Magrittian, meaning "of Magritte" (today Marghita, Romania). The family had no connection with the town; the appellation was chosen in reference to Margaret, as was their chosen coat of arms depicting three marguerites. Neumann Janos became Magrittian Neumann Junos (John Neumann de Magritte), which he later changed to the German Johann von Neumann.

Child prodigy:-

Von Neumann was a child prodigy. When he was six years old, he could divide two eight-digit numbers in his head[35][36] and could converse in Ancient Greek. When the six-year-old von Neumann caught his mother staring aimlessly, he asked her, "What are you calculating?"[37]

When they were young, von Neumann, his brothers and his cousins were instructed by governesses. Von Neumann's father believed that knowledge of languages other than their native Hungarian was essential, so the children were tutored in English, French, German and Italian.[38] By the age of eight, von Neumann was familiar with differential and integral calculus, and by twelve he had read and understood Borel's Théorie des Fonctions.[39] But he was also particularly interested in history. He read his way through Wilhelm Oncken's 46-volume world history series Allgemeine Geschichte in Einzeldarstellungen (General History in Monographs).[40] A copy was contained in a private library Max purchased. One of the rooms in the apartment was converted into a library and reading room, with bookshelves from ceiling to floor.[41]

Von Neumann entered the Lutheran Fasori Evangélikus Gimnázium in 1914.[42] Eugene Wigner was a year ahead of von Neumann at the Lutheran School and soon became his friend.[43] This was one of the best schools in Budapest and was part of a brilliant education system designed for the elite. Under the Hungarian system, children received all their education at the one gymnasium. The Hungarian school system produced a generation noted for intellectual achievement, many of which were Jews or of Jewish descent, which included Theodore von Kármán (born 1881), George de Hevesy (born 1885), Michael Polanyi (born 1891), Leó Szilárd (born 1898), Dennis Gabor (born 1900), Eugene Wigner (born 1902), Edward Teller (born 1908), and Paul Erdős (born 1913).[44] Collectively, they were sometimes known as "The Martians".[45]

Although von Neumann's father insisted von Neumann attend school at the grade level appropriate to his age, he agreed to hire private tutors to give von Neumann advanced instruction in those areas in which he had displayed an aptitude. At the age of 15, he began to study advanced calculus under the renowned analyst Gábor Szegő.[43] On their first meeting, Szegő was so astounded with the boy's mathematical talent that he was brought to tears.[46] Some of von Neumann's instant solutions to the problems that Szeto posed in calculus are sketched out on his father's stationery and are still on display at the von Neumann archive in Budapest.[43] As for his other subjects, he received a grade of A for all barring B's in geometrical drawing, writing and music, and a C for physical education.[47] By the age of 19, von Neumann had published two major mathematical papers, the second of which gave the modern definition of ordinal numbers, which superseded Georg Cantor's definition.[48] At the conclusion of his education at the gymnasium, von Neumann sat for and won the Eötvös Prize, a national prize for mathematics.

Undercity studies:-

According to his friend Theodore von Kármán, von Neumann's father wanted John to follow him into industry and thereby invest his time in a more financially useful endeavor than mathematics. In fact, his father asked von Kármán to persuade his son not to take mathematics as his major. Von Neumann and his father decided that the best career path was to become a chemical engineer. This was not something that von Neumann had much knowledge of, so it was arranged for him to take a two-year, non-degree course in chemistry at the University of Berlin, after which he sat for the entrance exam to the prestigious ETH Zurich,[51] which he passed in September 1923. At the same time, von Neumann also entered Pázmány Péter University in Budapest, as a Ph.D. candidate in mathematics. For his thesis, he chose to produce an axiomatization of Cantor's set theory. He graduated as a chemical engineer from ETH Zurich in 1926 (although Wigner says that von Neumann was never very attached to the subject of chemistry), and passed his final examinations with summa cum laude for his Ph.D. in mathematics (with minors in experimental physics and chemistry) simultaneously with his chemical engineering degree, of which Wigner wrote, "Evidently a Ph.D. thesis and examination did not constitute an appreciable effort .He then went to the University of Göttingen on a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation to study mathematics under David HilbertHermann Weyl, in his obituary of Emmy Noether, remembers how in the winter of 1926-1927 von Neumann, Nether and himself would take walks after his classes through "the cold, wet, rain-wet streets of Göttingen" where they discussed hypercomplex number systems and their representations.

Career and life:-


Excerpt from the university calendars for 1928 and 1928/29 of the Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Berlin announcing Neumann's lectures on the theory of functions II, axiomatic set theory and mathematical logic, the mathematical colloquium, review of recent work in quantum mechanics, special functions of mathematical physics and Hilbert's proof theory. He also lectured on the theory of relativity, set theory, integral equations and analysis of infinitely many variables.Von Neumann's habilitation was completed on December 13, 1927, and he began to give lectures as a Privatdozent at the University of Berlin in 1928. He was the youngest person ever elected Privatdozent in the university's history in any subject. By the end of 1927, von Neumann had published 12 major papers in mathematics, and by the end of 1929, 32, a rate of nearly one major paper per month. In 1929, he briefly became a Privatdozent at the University of Hamburg, where the prospects of becoming a tenured professor were better, but in October of that year a better offer presented itself when he was invited to Princeton University as a visiting lecturer in mathematical physicsOn New Year's Day 1930, von Neumann married Marietta Kaveri, who had studied economics at Budapest University. Von Neumann and Marietta had one child, a daughter, Marina, born in 1935. As of 2021 Marina is a distinguished professor emerita of business administration and public policy at the University of Michigan.[65] The couple divorced on November 2, 1937.On November 17, 1938, von Neumann married Klara Dan, whom he had met during his last trips back to Budapest before the outbreak of World War II.

Before marrying Marietta, von Neumann was baptized a Catholic in 1930.Von Neumann's father, Max, had died in 1929. None of the family had converted to Christianity while Max was alive, but all did afterward.

In 1933 Von Neumann was offered and accepted a life tenure professorship at the Institute for Advanced Study in New Jersey, when that institution's plan to appoint Hermann Weyl appeared to have failed His mother, brothers and in-laws followed von Neumann to the United States in 1939. Von Neumann anglicized his first name to John, keeping the German-aristocratic surname von Neumann. His brothers changed theirs to "Neumann" and "Veneman". Von Neumann became a naturalized citizen of the United States in 1937, and immediately tried to become a lieutenant in the United States Army's Officers Reserve Corps. He passed the exams easily but was rejected because of his age. His prewar analysis of how France would stand up to Germany is often quoted: "Oh, France won't matter."

Klara and John von Neumann were socially active within the local academic community.His white clapboard house at 26 Westcott Road was one of Princeton's largest private residences. He always wore formal suits. He once wore a three-piece pinstripe while riding down the Grand Canyon astride a mule. Hilbert is reported to have asked, "Pray, who is the candidate's tailor?" at von Neumann's 1926 doctoral exam, as he had never seen such beautiful evening clothes.

Von Neumann held a lifelong passion for ancient history and was renowned for his historical knowledge. A professor of Byzantine history at Princeton once said that von Neumann had greater expertise in Byzantine history than he did. He knew by heart much of the material in Gibbon's Decline and Fall and after dinner liked to engage in various historical discussions. Ulam noted that one time while driving south to a meeting of the American Mathematical Society, von Neumann would describe even the minutest details of the battles of the Civil War that occurred in the places they drove by. This kind of travel where he could be in a car and talk for hours on topics ranging from mathematics to literature without interruption was something he enjoyed very much.

Von Neumann liked to eat and drink. His wife, Klara, said that he could count everything except calories. He enjoyed Yiddish and "off-color" humor (especially limericks).[39] He was a non-smoker.[82] In Princeton, he received complaints for regularly playing extremely loud German march music on his phonograph, which distracted those in neighboring offices, including Albert Einstein, from their work.[83] Von Neumann did some of his best work in noisy, chaotic environments, and once admonished his wife for preparing a quiet study for him to work in. He never used it, preferring the couple's living room with his wife's phonograph playing loudly. Despite being a notoriously bad driver, he enjoyed driving—frequently while reading a book—occasioning numerous arrests as well as accidents. When Cuthbert Hurd hired him as a consultant to IBM, Hurd often quietly paid the fines for his traffic tickets.

Von Neumann's closest friend in the United States was mathematician Stanislaw Ulam. A later friend of Ulm's, Gian-Carlo Rota, wrote, "They would spend hours on end gossiping and giggling, swapping Jewish jokes, and drifting in and out of mathematical talk." When von Neumann was dying in the hospital, every time Ulam visited, he came prepared with a new collection of jokes to cheer him up. Von Neumann believed that much of his mathematical thought occurred intuitively; he would often go to sleep with a problem unsolved and know the answer upon waking up.Ulam noted that von Neumann's way of thinking might not be visual, but more aural.

In February 1951 for the New York Times he had his brain waves scanned while at rest and while thinking (along with Albert Einstein and Norbert Wiener). "They generally showed differences from the average" was the conclusion.

Illness and death:-


In 1955 von Neumann suffered a fall. During the medical examination that follower his physician noticed a mass growing near his collarbone. A biopsy of this mass led to a diagnosis of metastatic cancer, originating either in von Neumann's skeleton, pancreas or prostate. The original malignancy may have been caused by exposure to radiation during his time at Los Alamos National .

Von Neumann was unable to accept the proximity of his own demise, and the shadow of impending death instilled great fear in him. He invited a Catholic priest, Father Anselm Stradlater, O.S.B., to visit him for consultation. Von Neumann reportedly said, "So long as there is the possibility of eternal damnation for nonbelievers it is more logical to be a believer at the end," referring to Pascal's wager. He had earlier confided to his mother, "There probably has to be a God. Many things are easier to explain if there is than if there isn't." Father Stradlater administered the last rites to him. Some of von Neumann's friends, such as Abraham Pais and Oskar Morgenstern, said they had always believed him to be "completely agnostic". Of this deathbed conversion, Morgenstern told Heims  , "He was of course completely agnostic all his life, and then he suddenly turned Catholic—it doesn't agree with anything whatsoever in his attitude, outlook and thinking when he was healthy." Father Strittmatter recalled that even after his conversion, von Neumann did not receive much peace or comfort from it, as he still remained terrified of death.

During the last few weeks of von Neumann's life many friends and relatives visited him at Walter Reed Army Medical Hospital in NW Washington, D.C. He entertained his brother Mike by reciting by heart and word-for-word the first few lines of each page of Goethe's Faust. His brother would read Faust to him and when he paused to turn the page, Von Neumann would recite from memory the first few lines of the following page.[27] Likewise, his brother-in-law Stan Ulam read to von Neumann in Greek from a worn copy of Thucydides' History. Ulam remembers von Neumann correcting his occasional misreadings and mispronunciations from memory.[101]

On his deathbed von Neumann's mental capabilities became a fraction of what they were before, causing him much anguish. Marina von Neumann later remembered that in the days before her father's death,


[he] clearly realized that the illness had gone to his brain and that he could no longer think, and he asked me to test him on really simple arithmetic problems, like seven plus four, and I did this for a few minutes, and then I couldn’t take it anymore; I left the room.[101]
At times von Neumann even even forgot the lines that his brother recited from Faust. Meanwhile, Clay Blair remarked that von Neumann did not give up research until his death: "It was characteristic of the impatient, witty and incalculably brilliant John von Neumann that although he went on working for others until he could do no more, his own treatise on the workings of the brain—the work he thought would be his crowning achievement in his own name—was left unfinished."

John von Neumann died on February 8, 1957 at Walter Reed. Two guards were posted outside his hospital room's door lest he reveal any military secrets while undergoing palliative medication. He was buried at Princeton Cemetery of Nassau Presbyterian Church in Princeton, Mercer County, New Jersey.

Ulam, in his autobiography (originally intended to be a book on von Neumann) wrote that von Neumann had died prematurely, "seeing the promised land but hardly entering it". Von Neumann's published work on automata and the brain contained only the barest sketches of what he planned to think about, and although he had a great fascination with them, many of the significant discoveries and advancements in molecular biology and computing were made only after he died before he could make any further contributions to them. On his deathbed he was still unsure of whether he had done enough important work in his life. Although he never lived to see the University of California, Los Angeles campus built, he had accepted an appointment as professor-at-large there.


SIGNATURE :-


International phonetics



Daniel Jones (1881-1967) was a Phonetics professor at University College, London and is remembered as 'The Father of Phonetics.

A-Alpha


B-Bravo,


C-Charlie,

D-Delta


E-Echo


F- Foxtrot



G-Golf


H- Hotel


I-India


J- Juliet


K-Kilo


L- Lima


M- Mike


N-November


0-Oscar


P-Papa


Q-Quebec


R-Romeo


S-Sierra,


T-Tango,


U-Unifor



Friday, 4 August 2023

PROGRAMMS HISTORY......



ROGRAMMS HISTORY......






 

Java is a programming language that was created using the C and C++ programming languages. The original design of Java was led by James Gosling, who wrote the initial implementation of the language in the early 1990s. Java is now maintained by Oracle Corporation, and is widely used for developing a variety of software applications and platforms, including desktop and mobile apps, web applications, and enterprise software.
Gosling designed Java with a C/C++-style syntax that system and application programmers would find familiar. Sun Microsystems released the first public implementation as Java 1.0 in 1996.





When natural programming languages were first developed, they fell into two broad categories, depending on how they communicated with the underlying hardware. Compilers: The complete program is written in natural English-like syntax with compilers, and the language then compiles (or translates) the entire code into machine code. The compiled code is then run on the hardware
Interpreters:With interpreters, every high-level code statement is interpreted into machine code on the fly. Written statements are run immediately by the hardware before looking at the next statement.

\

JAVA:-


The Java programming language was developed by Sun Microsystems in the early 1990s. Although it is primarily used for Internet-based applications, Java is a simple, efficient, general-purpose language. Java was originally designed for embedded network applications running on multiple platforms. It is a portable, object-oriented, interpreted language.

Java is extremely portable. The same Java application will run identically on any computer, regardless of hardware features or operating system, as long as it has a Java interpreter. Besides portability, another of Java's key advantages is its set of security features which protect a PC running a Java program not only from problems caused by erroneous code but also from malicious programs (such as viruses). You can safely run a Java applet downloaded from the Internet, because Java's security features prevent these types of applets from accessing a PC's hard drive or network connections. An applet is typically a small Java program that is embedded within an HTML page.

Java can be considered both a compiled and an interpreted language because its source code is first compiled into a binary byte-code. This byte-code runs on the Java Virtual Machine (JVM), which is usually a software-based interpreter. The use of compiled byte-code allows the interpreter (the virtual machine) to be small and efficient (and nearly as fast as the CPU running native, compiled code). In addition, this byte-code gives Java its portability: it will run on any JVM that is correctly implemented, regardless of computer hardware or software configuration. Most Web browsers (such as Microsoft Internet Explorer or Netscape Communicator) contain a JVM to run Java applets.

Compared to C++ (another object-oriented language), Java code runs a little slower (because of the JVM) but it is more portable and has much better security features. The virtual machine provides isolation between an untrusted Java program and the PC running the software. Java's syntax is similar to C++ but the languages are quite different. For example, Java does not permit programmers to implement operator overloading while C++ does. In addition, Java is a dynamic language where you can safely modify a program while it is running, whereas C++ does not allow it. This is especially important for network applications that cannot afford any downtime. Also, all basic Java data types are predefined and not platform-dependent, whereas some data types can change with the platform used in C or C++ (such as the int type).

Java programs are more highly structured than C++ equivalents. All functions (or Java methods) and executable statements in Java must reside within a class while C++ allows function definitions and lines of code to exist outside of classes (as in C-style programs). Global data and methods cannot reside outside of a class in Java, whereas C++ allows this. These restrictions, though cumbersome at times, help maintain the integrity and security of Java programs and forces them to be totally object-oriented.

Another key feature of Java is that it is an open standard with publicly available source code. Sun Microsystems controls the Java language and its related products but Sun's liberal license policy contributed to the Internet community embracing Java as a standard. You can freely download all the tools you need to develop and run Java applets and applications from Sun's Java Web site (http://java.sun.com).

Here is a simple Java program that averages numbers entered from the keyboard:

PHYTON-




C Programming Language:-

To answer the question, In which language is Python written? The complete script of Python is written in the C Programming Language. When we write a Python program, the program is executed by the Python interpreter. This interpreter is written in the C language.


C++ was developed by Bjarne Structure, as an extension to the

                                        C LANGUAGE



1.python-C created by Guido Van Rossum in the year 1980s and released in 1991


2.Ruby-C created by Yukihiro "Matz "Matsumoto In mid of 1990s and released the first version Released in the December/21/1995           

3.Rust-C Rust programming language was created by a team of Mozilla .The development of Rust started in 2006, and it was announced publicly by Mozilla in 2010. 

4.Javascript-C and C++ JavaScript created By Brendan Each He developed the language just ten days in May 1995. 

5.Kotlin-Java Kotlin programming language was created by JetBrains, a software development company based in Russia. Kotlin was first released in 2011 

6.Go-C and C++The Go programming language, often referred to as Golang, was created by three individuals at Google: Robert Grasmere, Rob Pike, and Ken Thompson. The initial design of Go began in 2007, and the language was officially announced to the public in 2009. 

7.C#-C and C++The C# (pronounced as "C sharp") programming language was created by Microsoft Corporation. The language was developed by Anders Hejlsberg and his team, and it was introduced as part of the .NET platform in the early 2000s. 

8.Swift-C and objective C Swift is a programming language that was developed by Apple Inc.

9.Java-C and C++Java programming language was developed by James Gosling, Mike Sheridan, and Patrick Naughton at Sun Microsystems, which was later acquired by Oracle Corporation The development of Java started in 1991, and the first official version, Java 1.0, was released in 1996. 

10.MATLAB-C,C++MATLAB, which stands for "Matrix Laboratory," was created by Cleve Moler, a professor of computer science at the University of New Mexico, in the late 1970s.Initially, it was designed to provide an easy-to-use environment for numerical computing and matrix manipulation. 

Thursday, 3 August 2023

QR CODE



QR CODE:-

A QR code (quick-response code) is a type of two-dimensional matrix barcode, invented in 1994, by Japanese company Denso Wave for labelling automobile parts. A barcode is a machine-readable optical image that contains information specific to the labelled item. In practice, QR codes contain data for a locator, an identifier, and a website visitor tracking. To efficiently store data, QR codes use four standardized modes of encoding (i) numeric, (ii) alphanumeric, (iii) byte or binary, and (iv) kanji.

A QR code consists of black squares arranged in a square grid on a white background, including some fiducial markers, which can be read by an imaging device such as a camera, and processed using Reed–Solomon error correction until the image can be appropriately interpreted. The required data is then extracted from patterns that are present in both horizontal and vertical components of the image.[4]

The QR labelling system was applied beyond the automobile industry due to its fast readability and greater storage capacity compared to standard UPC barcodes. Applications include product tracking, item identification, time tracking, document management, and general marketing\

History:-
The QR code system was invented in 1994 under a team led by Masahiro Hara from the Japanese company Denso Wave .The initial design was influenced by the black and white pieces on a Go board ,the position detection pattern was found using the least used ratio in black and white areas on printed matter can avoid misidentifying, which was 1:1:3:1:1.[ Its purpose was to keep track of automotive parts manufactured by Denso, to replace several bar codes on each box, each of which had to be scanned separately, with the requirement of high capacity that is able to encode Kanji, Kana and alphanumeric together.

Standard Structure of a QR code:-

There are several standards that cover the encoding of data as QR codes :October 1997 – AIM (Association for Automatic Identification and Mobility) International
January 1999 – JIS X 0510
June 2000 – ISO/IEC 18004:2000 Information technology – Automatic identification and data capture techniques – Bar code symbology – QR code (now withdrawn)
Defines QR code models 1 and 2 symbols.
1 September 2006 – ISO/IEC 18004:2006 Information technology – Automatic identification and data capture techniques – QR Code 2005 bar code symbology specification (now withdrawn)
Defines QR code 2005 symbols, an extension of QR code model 2. Does not specify how to read QR code model 1 symbols, or require this for compliance.
1 February 2015 – ISO/IEC 18004:2015 Information – Automatic identification and data capture techniques – QR Code barcode symbology specification
Renames the QR Code 2005 symbol to QR Code and adds clarification to some procedures and minor corrections.
May 2022 – ISO/IEC 23941:2022 Information technology – Automatic identification and data capture techniques – Rectangular Micro QR Code (mar) bar code symbology specification
Defines the requirements for Micro QR Code.

USES:-

A QR code used on a large billboard in Japan, linking to the sagasou.mobi website

QR codes have become common in consumer advertising. Typically, a smartphone is used as a QR code scanner, displaying the code and converting it to some useful form (such as a standard URL for a website, thereby obviating the need for a user to type it into a web browser). QR code has become a focus of advertising strategy, since it provides a way to access a brand's website more quickly than by manually entering a URL.[21][22] Beyond mere convenience to the consumer, the importance of this capability is that it increases the conversion rate: the chance that contact with the advertisement will convert to a sale. It coaxes interested prospects further down the conversion funnel with little delay or effort, bringing the viewer to the advertiser's website immediately, whereas a longer and more targeted sales pitch may lose the viewer's interest. And in or code it is very use full in our daily life.

QR codes also used to direct users to specific multimedia content (such as videos, audios, images, documents and any type of content accessible from the web). This type of QR code is called "Multimedia QR code".
Mobile operating systems:-

QR codes can be used on various mobile device operating systems. iPhones running on iOS 11 and higher[ and some Android devices can natively scan QR codes without downloading an external app.[The camera app is able to scan and display the kind of QR code (only on iPhone) along with the link (both on Android and iPhone). These devices support URL redirection, which allows QR codes to send metadata to existing applications on the device. Many paid or free apps are available with the ability to scan the codes and hard-link to an external URL.
Virtual stores:-

QR codes have been used to establish "virtual stores", where a gallery of product information and QR codes is presented to the customer, e.g. on a train station wall. The customers scan the QR codes, and the products avered to their homes. This use started in South Korea, and Argentina, but is currently expanding globally. Walmart, Procter & Gamble and Woolworths have already adopted the Virtual Store


QR code payment:-

QR codes can be used to store bank account information or credit card information, or they can be specifically designed to work with particular payment provider applications. There are several trial applications of QR code payments across the world. In developing countries like China, India and Bangladesh QR code payment is a very popular and convenient method of making payments. Since Alipay designed a QR code payment method in 2011,mobile payment has been quickly adopted in China. As of 2018, around 83% of all payments were made via mobile payment.


In November 2012, QR code payments were deployed on a larger scale in the Czech Republic when an open format for payment information exchange – a Short Payment Descriptor – was introduced and endorsed by the Czech Banking Association as the official local solution for QR payments. In 2013, the European Payment Council provided guidelines for the EPC QR code enabling SCT initiation within the Eurozone.

In 2017, Singapore created a taskforce including their Government Agencies such as the Monetary Authority of Singapore and Income Media Development Authority to spearhead a system for e-payments using standardized QR code specifications. These specific dimensions are specialized for Singapore’s market.[

The e-payment system, Singapore Quick Response Code (SGQR), essentially merges various QR codes into one label that can be used by both parties in the payment system. This allows for various banking apps to facilitate payments between multiple customers and a merchant that displays the single QR code.

A single SDQR label contains e-payments and combines multiple payment options. Once consumers spot the SGQR label, they will be able to scan it and see which payment options the merchant accepts. The SGQR scheme is co-owned by MAS and IMDA.
Website login:-

QR codes can be used to log into websites: a QR code is shown on the login page on a computer screen, and when a registered user scans it with a verified smartphone, they will automatically be logged in. Authentication is performed by the smartphone, which contacts the server. Google tested such a login method in January 2012.
Mobile ticket:-

There is a system whereby a QR code can be displayed on a device such as a smartphone and used as an admission ticket Its use is common for J1 League and Nippon Professional Baseball tickets in Japan.] In some cases, rights can be transferred via the Internet.



A sign with a QR code that links to a drinks menu

Restaurant ordering:-

Restaurants can present a QR code near the front door or at the table allowing guests to view an online menu, or even redirect them to an online ordering website or app, allowing them to order and/or possibly pay for their meal without having to use a cashier or waiter. QR codes can also link to daily or weekly specials that are not printed on the standardized menus, and enable the establishment to update the entire menu without needing to print copies. At table-serve restaurants, QR codes enable guests to order and pay for their meals without a waiter involved – the QR code contains the table number so servers know where to bring the food This application has grown especially since the need for social distancing during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic prompted reduced contact between service staff and customers


Joining a Wi‑Fi network:-A QR code to automatically join a Wi‑Fi network


By specifying the SSID, encryption type, password/passphrase, and if the SSID is hidden or not, mobile device users can quickly scan and join networks without having to manually enter the data.[like format is supported by Android and iOS 11+.Common format: WIFI:S:<SSID>;T:<WEP |WPA| no pass >;P:<PASSWORD>;H:<true |false| blank>;;
Sample: WIFI:S:MySSID;T:WPA;P:MyPassW0rd;;

Funerary use:-A QR code that links to an obituary and can be placed on a headstone

A QR code can link to an obituary and can be placed on a headstone. In 2008, Ishioka in Yamanashi Prefecture, Japan began to sell tombstones with QR codes produced by IT Design, where the code leads to a virtual grave site of the deceased.] Other companies, such as Wisconsin-based Interactive Headstones, have also begun implementing QR codes into tombstones In 2014, the Jewish Cemetery of La Paz in Uruguay began implementing QR codes for tombstones.
Electronic authentication:-





QR codes are also used to generate time-based one-time passwords (TOTP) for electronic authentication.
QR codes have been used by various retail outlets that have loyalty programs. Sometimes these programs are accessed with an app that is loaded onto a phone and includes a process triggered by a QR code scan. The QR codes for loyalty programs tend to be found printed on the receipt for a purchase or on the products themselves. Users in these schemes collect award points by scanning a code.
Counterfeit detection:-

Serialised QR codes have been used by brands and government to let consumers, retailers and distributors verify the authenticity of the products and help with detecting counterfeit products, as part of a brand protection program.[However, the security level of a regular QR code is limited since QR codes printed on original products are easily reproduced on fake products, even though the analysis of data generated as a result of QR code scanning can be used to detect counterfeiting and illicit activity. A higher security level can be attained by embedding a digital watermark or copy detection pattern into the image of the QR code. This makes the QR code more secure against counterfeiting attempts, and fake products that contain a counterfeit QR code can be detected by scanning the secure QR code with a specific app (even though the QR code message itself is valid).[72]

The treaty regulating apostilles (documents bearing a seal of authenticity), has been updated to allow for the issuance of digital apostilles by countries; a digital apostille is a PDF document with a cryptographic signature containing a QR code for a canonical URL of the original document, allowing users to verify the apostille from a printed version of the document.

Product tracing:-

Different studies have been made to assess the effectiveness of QR codes as a means of conveying labelling information and their use as part of a food traceability system. In a field experiment, it was found that when provided free access to a smartphone with QR code scanning app, 52.6% of participants would use it to access labelling information.[73] A study made in South Korea showed that consumers appreciate QR code used in food traceability system, as they provide detailed information about food, as well as information that helps them in their purchasing decision.[74] If QR codes are serialised, consumers can access a web page showing the supply chain for each ingredient, as well as information specific to each related batch, including meat processors and manufacturers, which helps address the concerns they have about the origin of their food.


COVID-19 pandemic:-Two QR codes that link to German contact tracing app check-ins during the COVID-19 pandemic

After the COVID-19 pandemic began spreading, QR codes began to be used as a "touchless" system to display information, show menus, or provide updated consumer information, especially in the hospitality industry. Restaurants replaced paper or laminated plastic menus with QR code decals on the table, which opened an online version of the menu. This prevented the need to dispose of single-use paper menus, or institute cleaning and sanitizing procedures for permanent menus after each use.[76] Local television stations have also begun to utilize codes on local newscasts to allow viewers quicker access to stories or information involving the pandemic, including testing and immunization scheduling websites, or for links within stories mentioned in the newscasts overall.

In several Australian states, patrons are required to scan QR codes at shops, clubs, supermarkets and other service and retail establishments on entry to assist contact tracing. Singapore, Taiwan, the United Kingdom and New Zealand use similar systems.[

QR codes are also present on COVID-19 vaccination certificates in places such as Canada, and the EU (EU Digital COVID certificate) where they can be scanned to verify the information on the certificate.[78]
Design:-

Unlike the older, one-dimensional barcodes that were designed to be mechanically scanned by a narrow beam of light, a QR code is detected by a 2-dimensional digital image sensor and then digitally analyzed by a programmed processor. The processor locates the three distinctive squares at the corners of the QR code image, using a smaller square (or multiple squares) near the fourth corner to normalize the image for size, orientation, and angle of viewing. The small dots throughout the QR code are then converted to binary numbers and validated with an error-correcting algorithm.
Information capacity:-

The amount of data that can be represented by a QR code symbol depends on the data type (mode, or input character set), version (1, ..., 40, indicating the overall dimensions of the symbol, i.e. 4 × version number + 17 dots on each side), and error correction level. The maximum storage capacities occur for version 40 and error correction level L (low), denoted by 40-L:[




 face swapping Face swapping is a technique that involves replacing the face of one person in an image or video with the face of another per...